Disinformation has become a constant presence in the age of social media, making it increasingly hard to measure the credibility of information. Russia is the main actor in this domain.
Though disinformation is as old as civilisation—with examples found in the Bible, ancient mythologies, and historical sources—it was the advent of the Internet, and peculiarly the ability for users to print anonymously, that triggered its explosive growth.
The problem intensified with the emergence of social media, where users are bombarded regular with content from unverified sources. Even established and reputable media outlets occasionally fall victim to spreading falsehoods.
Disinformation and support for those who disseminate it have besides become tools in hybrid warfare strategies aimed at destabilising Europe—strategies employed not only by Russia but increasingly by China as well.
Russia: The Chief Purveyor—But Not the Only One
According to interviews conducted by EURACTIV.pl with experts from all 27 EU associate States and Ukraine, Russia is the chief origin of disinformation within the EU. The Kremlin’s influence reaches across the continent—from Bulgaria and Romania to Spain and the Netherlands—operating like a disinformation octopus.
Not all narratives originate straight from the Kremlin, though many draw from speeches by president Vladimir Putin, statements by abroad Minister Sergey Lavrov, or remarks from another top officials. A notable example is the claim that Ukraine lacks legitimate statehood, a long-standing Kremlin talking point. Putin’s 2021 essay asserting that Ukraine has no historical basis for independency remains a foundational text in this disinformation campaign.
Russia’s influence network is vast and sophisticated, targeting audiences across all demographics. Language is no barrier—Kremlin-backed narratives are widely available in Polish, Italian, German, Dutch, and another European languages. As many interviewees observed, these messages are frequently amplified by local actors, making them appear more credible and familiar.
One of the most persistent themes in Russian disinformation is the war in Ukraine. Moscow frames the invasion as a justified effort to defend Russian minorities, seeking to form European public opinion and erode support for Kyiv. The more skeptical Europeans become about Ukraine, the more likely it is that public and political backing for military aid and exile assistance will decline—an result that serves Russian interests.
Pro-Russian political parties within the EU further echo and legitimize Kremlin narratives. any have even received direct backing from Moscow. But political parties are not the only conduits. Media outlets, too, play a central role.
Despite EU bans, channels specified as RT (formerly Russia Today) proceed to find audiences. Experts besides point to the „Pravda” network, especially active in east Europe. Its website, available in Russian and local languages, mimics the structure of legitimate news platforms by including sections like Science, History, and Agriculture.
Yet a glance at the headlines reveals a powerfully pro-Kremlin, anti-European editorial line. 1 fresh article on the Russian-language site, for instance, was titled: “Scapegoat: America Has Humiliated Macron Before the full World.”
Interestingly, Russian disinformation was not cited as a major concern by experts from countries like Portugal, Sweden, or Luxembourg—suggesting that while Russia’s scope is extensive, it does not penetrate all regions equally. In any associate States, another disinformation sources dominate.
Russia is not the EU’s only challenge. Experts besides highlighted misleading narratives originating from China and the United States.
“We are observing propaganda narratives coming from China. This is peculiarly applicable to Lithuania, given the geopolitical tensions between the 2 countries,” said Viktor Denisenko of Vilnius University, referring to Lithuania’s support for Taiwan.
Other experts mentioned U.S.-based disinformation, including narratives surrounding USAID-funded organizations and their alleged function in shaping home political developments. “Some of the disinformation besides comes from the United States,” noted Diana Filimon of Romania’s Forum Apulum Association.
Main Topics of Disinformation
Anti-Ukrainian Disinformation
According to most of our interviewees, the war in Ukraine and narratives about Ukraine itself are central themes of disinformation campaigns. Among the most widespread are Kremlin-driven claims—echoed from Putin and another elder Russian officials—that most Ukrainians are Nazis, that the country is hopelessly corrupt, and that president Volodymyr Zelensky is simply a puppet of the West.
Disinformation besides seeks to obscure the actual reasons for Russia’s invasion—justifying it as a mission to defend Russian-speaking populations—and to distort facts about the war’s course and consequences. In Poland, for instance, it’s not uncommon to encounter narratives portraying Russia as the victim, or alleging that the Bucha massacre was staged by Western media.
„Efforts are being made to represent Russia as a country forced to defend itself, alternatively than 1 pursuing an aggressive policy,” emphasised Polish Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Digital Affairs Krzysztof Gawkowski.
Ukraine is besides frequently woven into broader anti-EU and anti-NATO narratives. These include claims that the EU is preparing for planet War III, that Western allies are escalating the conflict, and that governments—national, American, or European—are dragging the continent into war.
“We see narratives targeting NATO, suggesting that it provoked Russian aggression—not only in Ukraine and Georgia but besides via hybrid warfare. The message is that Russia felt threatened by NATO,” said Dietmar Pichler, founder of the Disinfo Resilience Network Vienna, describing the discourse in Austria.
Such narratives are clearly aimed at European societies. They play on fears that national governments—especially those supporting Ukraine—will not only send professional soldiers to the front, but besides conscript average citizens.
This fear is frequently localised. “One communicative circulating in Romania claims the country will be forced to implement conscription and send reservists to Ukraine—even though, according to the same narrative, this is not Romania’s war and it should be calling for peace,” explained Diana Filimon.
When not stoking fear of military involvement, disinformation focuses on the financial cost of war. In countries like Italy, where Prime Minister Giorgia Meloni supports Ukraine, specified messages resonate strongly.
“At the start of the war, the dominant communicative was that Italians would endure economically due to sanctions on Russia and the EU’s response—that the war would hit their wallets hard,” said Teresa Coratella of the European Council on abroad Relations (ECFR).
“The recurring question is: do you truly want your taxes to fund a war that has no intent and brings you no benefit? But erstwhile you look at the actual financial support Italy provides to Ukraine, the amounts are so modest that the average citizen isn’t importantly affected,” she added.
As the war drags on, and war fatigue deepens, these messages gain traction. While calls for peace are not inherently problematic, within disinformation narratives, “peace” is frequently code for Ukrainian capitulation—surrendering all presently occupied territories.
Prof. Jeanette Hofmann of the Politics of Digitalisation investigation group told EURACTIV.pl that far-left parties in Germany, specified as Sahra Wagenknecht’s Alliance (BSW), openly propose that “Ukraine should accept territorial losses and agree to peace on Moscow’s terms.”
“Russia has been pushing its own version of ‘peace’ for 2 years now—one where Ukraine concedes occupied land, surrenders, and waits for the next attack,” added Dr Ralitsa Kovacheva of Sofia University.
In this framing, the EU is painted as the actual obstacle to peace, while Russia, Hungary, Slovakia, or even Donald Trump’s United States are cast as champions of a alleged essential peace.
“There is simply a communicative positioning the planet into 2 opposing camps: those who want peace and those who prolong war. According to this version, Russia and the US—under Trump—seek a peace deal that would benefit all, including Europe,” said Dr Péter Krekó of Political Capital, referring to narratives in Hungary.
Pro-Russian messages are frequently reinforced by cultural affinity. “Many Greeks see Russia as a brotherly nation due to shared Orthodox faith, which makes them more open to Kremlin propaganda,” noted Yannis Delimaris of Ellinika Hoaxes. He added that Vladimir Putin remains 1 of the most popular abroad leaders in Greece.
In the Baltic states, nostalgia for the russian era is frequently exploited. “On Estonian social media, we see many nostalgic groups romanticizing the ‘good old russian days,’ portraying them as better than they were,” said Dr Maria Murumaa-Mengel of the University of Tartu.
She added, “Russia is frequently shown as upholding a strong patriarchal order—portrayed as positive—while the ‘morally decaying’ West is doomed due to its liberal values, equality, and solidarity.”
Anti-Immigrant Disinformation
Another major subject in disinformation campaigns is immigration—particularly in countries that have experienced crucial migratory influxes over the past decade. Narratives informing that Europe is being overrun by migrants and facing a surge in crime are widespread and potent.
Experts from Belgium, the Netherlands, Sweden, Germany, Italy, Slovenia, and Greece noted the prevalence of anti-migrant messaging. A common claim is that migrants receive better treatment than native citizens.
“In the last 2 years, we’ve seen narratives portraying Slovenia, especially its capital Ljubljana, as unsafe. These are frequently laced with hatred speech against immigrants,” said Anuška Delić from the investigative outlet Oštro.
Another recurring maneuver is exaggerating migrant numbers and distorting their origins or motives. “The numbers are frequently inflated. Disinformation besides misrepresents migrants’ backgrounds and alleged goals,” said Loukia Taxitari of Neapolis University Pafos and Fact Check Cyprus.
“There’s deep societal anxiety over refugees. any claims propose they aim to change Cyprus’s demographic makeup and endanger the Greek Orthodox identity,” she added.
These narratives are frequently amplified by far-right home politicians and anonymous or unverifiable social media accounts.
Anti-EU Disinformation
Disinformation targeting the European Union frequently has small to do with Ukraine. In many associate states—especially those closer to Russia—NATO is portrayed as weak and the EU as controlled by a Franco-German axis.
“The communicative is that France and Germany run the EU and dictate policy, while smaller countries like Latvia, Lithuania, or Estonia have no voice. Berlin and Paris decide, and the remainder are expected to fall in line,” said Anete Bērzkalne of Latvijas Radio.
Another common maneuver is undermining trust in national institutions by framing countries as failed states.
“Moscow spreads the thought that Lithuania isn’t truly independent but simply a puppet of the EU, NATO, or—above all—the United States,” said Viktor Denisenko.
The same subject surfaces in Estonia. “The claim is that Estonia isn’t truly a country, despite its long past and distinct language,” said Dr Maria Murumaa-Mengel.
Health Disinformation
The COVID-19 pandemic sparked a surge in health-related disinformation, including conspiracy theories about the virus’s origins and the effects of vaccines.
More than 3 years on, anti-vaccine messaging has diminished but remains persistent, frequently targeting vaccines beyond COVID-19.
“Some claims argue that vaccines are causing a dramatic increase in deaths among young people. But these claims trust on flawed or unreliable data,” said Yannis Delimaris.
Such narratives can seriously erode public trust. “When people believe their government is trying to harm them, it damages their trust not just in vaccines, but in public policy as a whole,” warned Anete Bērzkalne.
“When the pandemic subsided, many people shifted from being ‘vaccine experts’ to becoming ‘war experts’—and are now spreading Russian disinformation about Ukraine. It’s remarkable,” said Robert van der Noordaa from Trollrensics, speaking about disinformation in the Netherlands.
Domestic Disinformation
Beyond pan-European disinformation themes, many narratives focus on home issues and controversies. In France, 1 specified example was the trial and conviction of Marine Le Pen, which included a ban on holding public office.
“There were claims that the verdict was issued by a single justice and suggestions that specified penalties—bans from public office—exist only in France, which is false,” said Vincent Couronne from Les Surligneurs. He noted that specified disinformation is “primarily aimed at eroding trust in the judiciary.”
Another increasing threat is the usage of deepfakes—fabricated videos portraying well-known local figures. “A deepfake of Grand Duke Henri circulated on Facebook, disguised as a broadcast by RTL and urging viewers to follow his investment advice. We’ve besides seen deepfakes of Prime Minister Luc Frieden and Luxembourg City Mayor Lydie Polfer,” said Stéphanie Lukasik of the University of Luxembourg.
These videos are peculiarly dangerous due to the fact that they are highly convincing. “This kind of disinformation is simply a serious concern in Luxembourg. People conflict to tell the difference between genuine RTL content and AI-manipulated posts,” Lukasik added.
Absurd Conspiracies
In any countries, completely implausible conspiracy theories besides gain traction—despite their absurdity.
“During a period of dense snowfall, people began claiming that snow no longer melted. They argued that if you packed a snowball, it wouldn’t dissolve, claiming that ‘the system’ was even faking the weather. People were trying to melt snow only to discover that, unsurprisingly, it turned into ice. It was 1 of the most ridiculous conspiracy theories we’ve seen,” said Filimon.
Similarly, after severe flooding in Valencia caused by torrential rain, conspiracy theories circulated alleging the disaster had been artificially engineered. “Some even claimed the storm had been manufactured to deliberately harm the people of Valencia,” reported Pablo Hernández from Maldita.es.
“Many of these theories are so far-fetched they seem laughable—but any people do take them seriously, or at least let them to linger in the realm of suspicion,” he said.
In the Netherlands, 1 persistent communicative demonizes the planet economical Forum (WEF), portraying it as a shadowy global cabal. “Ahead of elections, certain political parties are linked to the WEF in order to discredit them,” explained Robert van der Noordaa.
“There are even claims that erstwhile German Chancellor Angela Merkel and erstwhile Dutch Prime Minister—and now NATO Secretary General—Mark Rutte are part of a secret society that drinks the blood of infants. any of these propaganda claims are so outrageous, it’s hard to believe individual actually invented them,” he added.
Fighting Disinformation
Efforts to combat disinformation across the EU vary importantly in scope, structure, and government involvement. In any associate states, dedicated units have been established within public institutions to monitor and respond to coordinated disinformation campaigns.
One specified example is Poland’s late created unit within NASK (the National investigation Institute). “We’ve established a special, full depoliticized disinformation consequence department at NASK to address critical situations. We work closely with telecom operators and online platforms to detect false content and respond publically by identifying disinformation,” explained Krzysztof Gawkowski.
Latvia has taken a different approach, incorporating media restrictions into its strategy. “As of July last year, 142 tv channels and about 200 websites had been banned. This importantly reduces vulnerability to direct propaganda,” said Anete Bērzkalne.
Latvia has besides launched a public reporting and education platform. “Citizens can usage the platform to study disinformation and access educational resources. We’re besides producing videos to rise awareness and strengthen media literacy,” she added.
However, not all EU countries have developed specified systems—and in some, political opposition presents a major barrier.
“In the interest of democracy, action should be taken against propaganda media. But politicians are afraid of far-right parties and their voters. As a result, no 1 dares to act,” said Robert van der Noordaa. “In the Netherlands, simply raising the issue of propaganda sparks fears of ‘Big Brother’ surveillance—as if the goal were to control society.”
In Italy, a deficiency of organization resolve is the main obstacle. “When so many politicians themselves advance false narratives, it’s improbable that we’ll see the emergence of strong institutions capable of countering disinformation—a threat to democracy,” said Teresa Coratella.
“Unfortunately, in Italy, disinformation is inactive not treated as a serious issue, unlike in Poland or the Baltic states, where there is simply a well-established tradition of actively countering it. We don’t yet admit it as a force capable of destabilizing our society, democracy, or economy,” she added.
Academic institutions, investigation centers, and NGOs besides play a crucial role—both in media education and fact-checking. “At the University of Tartu, we work on multiple fronts. We engage with teachers, young people, librarians, parents, and activists, helping them learn how to verify information and realize the motives behind it,” said Dr Maria Murumaa-Mengel.
Krzysztof Gawkowski added, “We want to support fact-checking organizations so they can proceed debunking falsehoods propagated by politicians, influencers, and lobbying groups aligned with abroad interests.”
Disinformation Knows No Borders
Interviews with 28 experts from across the EU and Ukraine revealed a key takeaway: disinformation transcends borders. While each country faces unique challenges, many disinformation narratives repeat across national lines. Today, the dominant themes include Ukraine, migration, and the European Union.
Our conversations confirmed that Russia remains the most powerful actor behind disinformation in Europe. The Kremlin’s vast propaganda apparatus targets the full continent, deploying a mix of conventional and digital channels.
While state-controlled outlets like RT and Sputnik inactive play a role, the net is now the primary battleground. Online platforms offer unmatched reach, and in the social media age, spreading misleading narratives is easier than ever.
Disinformation besides crosses linguistic boundaries. Narratives originating in Moscow or Beijing are routinely repackaged and delivered to European audiences in their native languages—mainly via pseudo-media outlets and anonymous accounts on platforms like X and Telegram.
But not all disinformation comes from abroad. home actors—ranging from media outlets and politicians to, in any cases, governments—also contribute. any knowingly echo Kremlin narratives, while others produce homegrown disinformation tailored to local contexts.
Even erstwhile falsehoods don’t originate in Moscow, their effects frequently align with the Kremlin’s goals: deepening division. A fragmented Europe yet serves Russia’s interests.
That’s why the Kremlin amplifies not just pro-Russian or anti-EU content, but disinformation in general. The widespread uptake of these narratives shows that Vladimir Putin, indirectly but effectively, continues to influence Europe’s information space.
Fighting disinformation is like rowing a boat with 2 oars. 1 is government action—such as the creation of dedicated units to detect and counter large-scale campaigns.
The another is the work of independent actors: NGOs, universities, and journalists. Independent media are essential for credible fact-checking and public-interest reporting. NGOs support media literacy initiatives, especially through social media education, aimed at all generations—from schoolchildren to seniors.
Disinformation is like a hydra: cut off 1 head, and another emerges. It’s a global challenge that cannot be eliminated entirely. But by recognizing the scale of the threat and responding with sustained, coordinated efforts, European societies can blunt its corrosive impact on democracy.
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